Clytemnestra

Clytemnestra was the queen of Mycenae in Greek mythology, the wife of Agamemnon, and one of the main figures in the tragic history of the House of Atreus. She was the daughter of Tyndareus and Leda, the sister of Helen of Troy, and the mother of Iphigenia, Electra, Orestes, and Chrysothemis. While Agamemnon led the Greek army in the Trojan War, Clytemnestra became the lover of Aegisthus. When Agamemnon returned from Troy with the Trojan princess Cassandra, both were killed in his palace: in Homer by Aegisthus with Clytemnestra’s help, and in Aeschylus by Clytemnestra herself. In Aeschylus she names her motives herself, above all revenge for Agamemnon’s sacrifice of their daughter Iphigenia at Aulis (Agamemnon 1412–1418). Her son Orestes later killed her.

Who Was Clytemnestra?

Family and Background

Clytemnestra was the daughter of Tyndareus, king of Sparta, and Leda. Her siblings included Helen, Castor, and Polydeuces, also known as Pollux. In the account Apollodorus gives, Zeus came to Leda in the form of a swan on the same night as Tyndareus, and she bore Pollux and Helen to Zeus and Castor and Clytemnestra to Tyndareus (Apollodorus, Library 3.10.6–7; compare Pindar, Nemean 10.79–82, where Castor is the son of Tyndareus and Pollux of Zeus). Apollodorus also records a variant in which Helen was the daughter of Zeus and Nemesis and was only brought up by Leda (Library 3.10.7). Homer calls Clytemnestra the daughter of Tyndareus (Odyssey 24.199).

Through her family, Clytemnestra was connected with both Sparta and the Trojan War. Helen’s departure with Paris caused the Greek expedition against Troy, while Clytemnestra’s marriage to Agamemnon placed her inside the cursed royal family of Mycenae.

Sister of Helen of Troy

Clytemnestra and Helen became wives of two brothers. Helen married Menelaus, who became king of Sparta when Tyndareus handed over the kingdom to him, while Clytemnestra married Agamemnon, king of Mycenae (Apollodorus, Epitome 2.16). When Paris took Helen to Troy, Menelaus and Agamemnon became the main leaders of the Greek response.

Helen was Clytemnestra’s sister, not her twin. In the version of Apollodorus (Library 3.10.7) the two had different fathers, so they were half-sisters; the ancient sources do not call them twins.

The sisters had very different roles in the Trojan War tradition. Helen became the woman at the center of the war, while Clytemnestra remained in Greece and became central to its violent aftermath.

Queen of Mycenae

Through her marriage to Agamemnon, Clytemnestra became queen of Mycenae, though some ancient sources connect their rule with Argos. Homer speaks of Agamemnon’s Mycenae and also of Argos, and Aeschylus sets his Agamemnon in Argos (Odyssey 3.248–263, 3.304; Aeschylus, Agamemnon). Agamemnon was one of the most powerful Greek kings and later became commander of the army that sailed against Troy.

During his long absence, Clytemnestra remained at the royal palace. In Aeschylus she is not simply a waiting wife: she holds the palace and, with Aegisthus, prepares Agamemnon’s death. In Homer she and Aegisthus plot together while Agamemnon is away (Odyssey 3.263–275).

Clytemnestra and Agamemnon

Clytemnestra’s First Husband

Some traditions say that Clytemnestra was first married to Tantalus, a son of Thyestes. Agamemnon killed Tantalus and their young child before taking Clytemnestra as his own wife (Apollodorus, Epitome 2.16; Pausanias 2.18.2). In Euripides’ Iphigenia at Aulis, Clytemnestra herself reminds Agamemnon that he wed her by force after killing Tantalus and dashing her baby to the ground (1148–1152).

Homer does not mention this first marriage, and it is less central than the stories of Iphigenia and Agamemnon’s return. Pausanias says he cannot tell whether Aegisthus or Agamemnon began the wrongdoing between the two houses (2.18.2).

Marriage to Agamemnon

Clytemnestra married Agamemnon and became the mother of several children. Their best-known children were Iphigenia, Electra, Orestes, and Chrysothemis. In the Iliad Agamemnon names a son Orestes and three daughters, Chrysothemis, Laodice and Iphianassa (Iliad 9.142–148); Electra, who is prominent in tragedy, is not named by Homer. Apollodorus lists Orestes, Chrysothemis, Electra and Iphigenia (Epitome 2.16). With Aegisthus, Clytemnestra later had a daughter, Erigone (Epitome 6.25).

The marriage joined the royal house of Sparta with the House of Atreus. It also brought Clytemnestra into a family already marked by murder, betrayal, and revenge through Atreus, Thyestes, and Aegisthus.

The House of Atreus

Agamemnon’s father Atreus had fought with his brother Thyestes for the throne. During their feud, Atreus killed the sons of Thyestes and served their bodies to him at a banquet (Apollodorus, Epitome 2.10–13). In Aeschylus Thyestes kicks over the table at the feast and curses the whole line (Agamemnon 1583–1602).

Aegisthus, a later son of Thyestes, killed Atreus according to Apollodorus (Epitome 2.14), and Agamemnon came to reign over Mycenae (Epitome 2.16). In Aeschylus Aegisthus claims the murder of Agamemnon as payment for the feast of Thyestes (Agamemnon 1577–1611), so that Clytemnestra’s anger against Agamemnon and the old quarrel between the two branches of the family run together.

Clytemnestra and the Trojan War

Helen and Paris

The events leading to the Trojan War began when Paris, prince of Troy, took Helen from Sparta. Whether Helen was abducted, persuaded, or influenced by Aphrodite varies between sources. Her husband Menelaus called upon the Greek rulers who had sworn the Oath of Tyndareus to defend his marriage (Apollodorus, Library 3.10.8–9; Epitome 3.6).

Agamemnon helped gather the Greek kings and became commander of their combined army. Clytemnestra remained in Greece while her husband prepared to lead the expedition.

The Greek Fleet at Aulis

The Greek ships gathered at Aulis before sailing to Troy. However, the winds stopped, and the fleet could not leave. The seer Calchas announced that Artemis was angry with Agamemnon and would not release the winds unless he offered his daughter Iphigenia as a sacrifice (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 184–227; Apollodorus, Epitome 3.21).

Different myths explain the anger of Artemis in different ways. In Sophocles Agamemnon shot a stag in the goddess’s grove and boasted about it (Electra 566–576); Apollodorus says he claimed that not even Artemis could have shot so well, and that Atreus had never sacrificed the golden lamb to her (Epitome 3.21); in Euripides he had once vowed to sacrifice the most beautiful creature born in the year, and that proved to be Iphigenia (Iphigenia among the Taurians 20–24).

The False Wedding

Agamemnon sent a message telling Clytemnestra to bring Iphigenia to Aulis because the girl was to marry Achilles (Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis 98–101; Apollodorus has Odysseus and Talthybius fetch her, Epitome 3.22). The wedding was a deception designed to bring Iphigenia to the Greek camp. Clytemnestra arrived believing that she was preparing her daughter for a respected marriage.

When she discovered the truth, Clytemnestra begged Agamemnon and Achilles to save Iphigenia. Achilles had not agreed to the false wedding and was angered that Agamemnon had used his name in the plan (Iphigenia at Aulis 819–1035).

Clytemnestra and the Sacrifice of Iphigenia

A Mother’s Plea

In Euripides’ Iphigenia at Aulis, Clytemnestra strongly opposes the sacrifice. She reminds Agamemnon of his duties as a father and husband and refuses to accept that Greek military goals should require their daughter’s death (Iphigenia at Aulis 1146–1208).

In Aeschylus Clytemnestra later points to this sacrifice when she defends the murder (Agamemnon 1412–1418). She presents it as the loss of her child through the choice of her husband.

Did Iphigenia Die?

Ancient accounts give different versions of Iphigenia’s fate. In one tradition, she was sacrificed, and the winds returned so that the Greek fleet could sail. In another, Artemis replaced Iphigenia with a deer at the last moment and carried her to the land of the Taurians, where she became the goddess’ priestess (Apollodorus, Epitome 3.22; Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis 1540–1612 and Iphigenia among the Taurians). In Aeschylus the sacrifice is carried out (Agamemnon 228–247), and Homer does not mention it at all.

Even in versions where Iphigenia survived, Clytemnestra may not have known what happened. From her point of view, Agamemnon had been willing to kill their daughter for the sake of the war.

The Beginning of Revenge

In Aeschylus, Iphigenia’s fate is the reason Clytemnestra gives most often for killing Agamemnon (Agamemnon 1412–1418, 1521–1529).

In that play the sacrifice at Aulis at the start of the expedition is answered by the murder at the end of it.

Clytemnestra and Aegisthus

Aegisthus, Son of Thyestes

Aegisthus was the son of Thyestes and, according to Apollodorus, of Thyestes’ own daughter, born after an oracle told Thyestes that this was how he could pay Atreus back for the murder of his children at the feast (Epitome 2.14; Hyginus, Fabulae 87–88 names the daughter Pelopia). He belonged to the branch of the family that had suffered under Atreus.

In Apollodorus’ account Aegisthus had already killed Atreus when he grew up (Epitome 2.14). His later plot against Agamemnon continued the same family feud into another generation.

The Affair During Agamemnon’s Absence

While Agamemnon was fighting at Troy, Clytemnestra became the lover of Aegisthus. Homer’s Odyssey says that Clytemnestra first refused him, being of good disposition, and that Agamemnon had left a singer with strict orders to guard her. Aegisthus took the singer to a desert island and left him there, and after that she went willingly to Aegisthus’ house (Odyssey 3.263–275).

Later tragedy often presents Clytemnestra as more independent and powerful. In Aeschylus’ Agamemnon, she does not appear as a weak woman led by Aegisthus. She rules the palace, plans the murder, and openly claims responsibility for it (Agamemnon 1372–1398).

Rule in Mycenae

In Homer Aegisthus ruled Mycenae for seven years after the murder (Odyssey 3.304–305). In Aeschylus a chain of beacon fires announces that Troy has fallen (Agamemnon 281–316), and Clytemnestra prepares to welcome her husband while secretly arranging his death.

In Aeschylus the two give different reasons: Clytemnestra points to Iphigenia, Aegisthus to the crimes of Atreus against Thyestes (Agamemnon 1412–1418, 1583–1602).

The Return of Agamemnon

Victory at Troy

After ten years of war, the Greeks captured Troy through the plan of the Wooden Horse. Agamemnon returned as the victorious commander of the Greek army. In Aeschylus he brings Cassandra and the spoils of Troy with him (Agamemnon 810–957).

Unlike Odysseus, who returned carefully and in disguise, Agamemnon entered his home openly. In Homer he is killed at a feast to which Aegisthus invited him, “as one slays an ox at the stall” (Odyssey 4.524–535, 11.409–420).

Cassandra

Agamemnon brought Cassandra, daughter of Priam and Hecuba, home as his captive and concubine. Cassandra had received the gift of prophecy from Apollo but, having broken her promise to him, was never believed (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1202–1213).

In Aeschylus she foresees that both she and Agamemnon will die inside the palace, but the chorus cannot understand her (Agamemnon 1072–1330). Clytemnestra herself calls Cassandra his concubine, “a delicacy for my bed” (Agamemnon 1438–1447).

The Purple Cloth

In Aeschylus’ Agamemnon, Clytemnestra welcomes her husband with carefully chosen words and persuades him to walk over costly purple fabrics. Agamemnon first resists because such treatment is suitable only for gods and might bring envy (Agamemnon 905–957).

He finally agrees, has his sandals taken off, and enters the palace.

The Murder of Agamemnon and Cassandra

The Bath and the Net

In Aeschylus Agamemnon is killed in the bath. Clytemnestra says she cast over him, as over fish, an endless net, a rich robe, and struck him twice; he cried out twice and fell, and she gave him a third blow as a thank-offering to Zeus of the dead (Agamemnon 1107–1129, 1372–1392). Apollodorus describes the garment as a sleeveless shirt with no neck opening, in which he was entangled and cut down (Epitome 6.23).

The weapon varies. Sophocles speaks of an axe that split his head “as woodmen chop an oak” (Electra 95–99, 193–200), and Homer says Agamemnon was killed at a banquet table with his companions around him (Odyssey 11.409–420), while Aeschylus speaks of a sword (Agamemnon 1262, 1528–1530).

Clytemnestra Claims the Killing

In Aeschylus’ tragedy, Clytemnestra appears after the murder and openly admits what she has done. She does not hide behind Aegisthus or claim that the death was an accident. She presents the killing as justice for Iphigenia and as payment for Agamemnon’s crimes (Agamemnon 1372–1398, 1412–1418).

She speaks before the elders of Argos, who answer that she will be driven out by the people and cursed (Agamemnon 1399–1400, 1407–1411).

The Death of Cassandra

Clytemnestra also kills Cassandra. In Homer, Agamemnon’s ghost says that “guileful Clytemnestra” slew her at his side (Odyssey 11.421–423). In Aeschylus the Trojan prophetess enters the palace knowing that she is walking toward death (Agamemnon 1297–1330). Apollodorus follows Homer in making Clytemnestra the killer, although Hyginus lets Aegisthus take part (Epitome 6.23; Hyginus, Fabulae 117).

Cassandra had survived the destruction of her city only to die in the house of the Greek commander who took her captive.

Clytemnestra in the Odyssey

The Story Told by Homer

Clytemnestra does not appear alive during the main action of Homer’s Odyssey, but her story is mentioned several times. Agamemnon’s murder becomes one of the poem’s main examples of a failed homecoming (Odyssey 1.29–43, 3.193–200, 4.512–547, 11.385–466, 24.19–34).

In Homer’s version, Aegisthus receives more direct blame for planning and carrying out the murder. Clytemnestra is still involved: Agamemnon says Aegisthus killed him “with the aid of my accursed wife” and that Clytemnestra herself killed Cassandra (Odyssey 11.409–423). Her role is less dominant than it becomes in Aeschylus’ tragedy.

Agamemnon and Odysseus

Agamemnon’s return is repeatedly compared with the return of Odysseus. Agamemnon comes home openly and is killed by his wife and her lover. Odysseus comes home in disguise, tests his household, defeats the suitors, and is reunited with Penelope.

This contrast creates two very different images of marriage and homecoming. Clytemnestra becomes the dangerous wife, while Penelope becomes the loyal wife who protects her husband’s house.

Agamemnon in the Underworld

When Odysseus visits the Underworld, he meets the spirit of Agamemnon. Agamemnon tells him about his murder and warns him not to be too open even with his own wife; he praises Penelope as a woman of excellent nature (Odyssey 11.385–466). He also complains that Clytemnestra did not close his eyes or mouth as he died (11.424–426).

In Homer Agamemnon does not mention Iphigenia, whose sacrifice is not told in the poems at all; the motive of the sacrifice comes from the later tradition.

Orestes as an Example for Telemachus

The Odyssey also uses Orestes as an example for Telemachus. Orestes became famous for avenging Agamemnon by killing Aegisthus. Athena, speaking in the likeness of Mentes, and Nestor both hold Orestes up to Telemachus as a son who avenged his father (Odyssey 1.298–300, 3.193–200).

This comparison connects Clytemnestra’s family tragedy with the crisis in Ithaca. Both stories concern an absent king, a threatened household, and a son who must decide how to respond.

Clytemnestra and Her Children

Electra

Electra remained loyal to the memory of Agamemnon and hated Clytemnestra and Aegisthus. In Sophocles’ Electra she waits for Orestes to return and helps him carry out revenge; in Euripides’ Electra she is married to a poor farmer. In Aeschylus’ Libation Bearers she brings offerings to her father’s tomb for her mother.

In Sophocles the two quarrel openly, Clytemnestra defending the killing by pointing to Iphigenia and Electra answering that Agamemnon acted under the pressure of Artemis’ anger (Electra 516–633).

Orestes

Orestes was sent away or rescued after Agamemnon’s death, according to Apollodorus by Electra, who gave him to Strophius of Phocis to bring up with his son Pylades (Epitome 6.24). When he grew older, he consulted Apollo, returned to Mycenae with Pylades, and killed Aegisthus and Clytemnestra (Epitome 6.25). Homer mentions only that Orestes killed Aegisthus and held a funeral feast “over his hateful mother and the craven Aegisthus” (Odyssey 3.306–310).

By killing his mother, Orestes avenged his father but committed the crime of matricide. The Erinyes pursued him, continuing the family’s cycle of blood revenge.

Chrysothemis

Chrysothemis appears less often than Electra and Orestes. In Sophocles’ Electra, she is more cautious and obedient than Electra. She understands the wrongs inside the palace but fears the power of Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, and she carries her mother’s offerings to Agamemnon’s tomb (Electra 328–471).

Iphigenia

Iphigenia is absent from most of Clytemnestra’s later story, but she is the reason Clytemnestra gives in Aeschylus and Sophocles. Whether she died at Aulis or was rescued by Artemis, Clytemnestra in those plays treats Agamemnon as the destroyer of their daughter.

The Death of Clytemnestra

Orestes Returns

Orestes returned in disguise or secrecy, depending on the ancient version. In Aeschylus he and Pylades come to the palace gate posing as Phocian strangers and announce that Orestes is dead (Libation Bearers 560–584, 653–718). He killed Aegisthus and then faced Clytemnestra. Euripides’ Electra has Orestes and Electra kill her together.

A Mother’s Final Appeal

In Aeschylus Clytemnestra calls for an axe when she hears of Aegisthus’ death, then bares her breast and begs Orestes to pity the breast that nursed him. Orestes hesitates and asks Pylades what to do, and Pylades, speaking for the only time in the play, tells him to count all men his enemies rather than the gods (Libation Bearers 885–930).

Orestes then drives her into the house and kills her. In Sophocles her death cries are heard from inside while Electra stands outside (Electra 1398–1421).

The Erinyes Pursue Orestes

After the matricide, the Erinyes pursue Orestes. These ancient goddesses punish crimes against family blood, especially the murder of a parent. In Aeschylus they appear to Orestes at the end of the Libation Bearers (1048–1062).

In Aeschylus’ Eumenides, Orestes is eventually tried at Athens before a court of citizens established by Athena. The votes are equal, and Athena’s casting vote acquits him (Eumenides 734–753). Apollodorus mentions other accusers, Tyndareus or Clytemnestra’s daughter Erigone (Epitome 6.25).

Clytemnestra’s Role and Symbolism

Wife, Mother, and Ruler

The sources show Clytemnestra in several roles. She is a wife who takes a lover, a mother who in Aeschylus and Sophocles names her daughter as her reason for revenge, and a queen who in Aeschylus holds the palace after the murder (Agamemnon 1372–1398, 1672–1673).

Revenge and Justice

In Aeschylus Clytemnestra calls the killing justice: she says Agamemnon paid for Iphigenia and for the deeds of Atreus (Agamemnon 1431–1447, 1500–1504). The chorus answers that she will be cursed and driven from the city (1409–1411).

Orestes in turn kills her on the command of Apollo and is then pursued by the Erinyes (Libation Bearers 269–305, 1048–1062).

The Reversal of Power

In Aeschylus the watchman says that she has “a woman’s heart with a man’s strength of purpose” (Agamemnon 10–11), and the chorus leader greets her as holding the throne while it is empty (258–260).

The Dark Homecoming

Agamemnon survives ten years at Troy, only to be killed in his own palace; in the Odyssey his return is the counterpart to that of Odysseus.

Clytemnestra in Ancient Literature

Homer’s Odyssey

In Homer’s Odyssey, Clytemnestra is part of the story of Agamemnon’s failed return. Aegisthus is presented as the main planner of the crime, while Clytemnestra is held up as a contrast to the faithful Penelope (Odyssey 11.441–456, 24.192–202).

The poem also uses Orestes’ revenge as a model for Telemachus (Odyssey 1.298–300).

Aeschylus’ Oresteia

Clytemnestra has her most powerful ancient role in Aeschylus’ Oresteia. In Agamemnon, she plans and carries out the murders of Agamemnon and Cassandra. In The Libation Bearers, Orestes returns and kills her. Her death then leads to the pursuit by the Erinyes and the trial shown in The Eumenides.

Sophocles’ Electra

Sophocles’ Electra focuses on the hatred between Electra and Clytemnestra and on the return of Orestes. Clytemnestra defends the murder of Agamemnon by pointing to his sacrifice of Iphigenia (Electra 525–551).

The play gives both mother and daughter strong reasons for their anger, even though they stand on opposite sides of the family conflict.

Euripides’ Plays

Euripides presents Clytemnestra at different stages of her life. In Iphigenia at Aulis, she is a mother fighting to save her daughter. In Electra, she is the queen who killed Agamemnon and is later killed by her children.

These plays show how Clytemnestra changes from a deceived mother into a ruler and murderer.

Misconceptions and Lesser-Known Facts

Clytemnestra Had More Than One Motive

A common mistake is to explain Clytemnestra’s actions only through her affair with Aegisthus. In Aeschylus she gives Iphigenia, the humiliation of Cassandra, and the avenging spirit of the house as reasons as well (Agamemnon 1412–1447).

The Ancient Sources Do Not Give One Version

Homer gives Aegisthus a larger role in Agamemnon’s death. Aeschylus makes Clytemnestra the main planner and killer. Later writers and artists also vary the weapon, the location, and the exact way the murder happens.

Clytemnestra and Helen Were Sisters

Clytemnestra was the sister, or half-sister, of Helen of Troy, but not her twin (Apollodorus, Library 3.10.7). In the Odyssey Agamemnon says that many Greeks died for Helen’s sake and that Clytemnestra laid a snare for him (Odyssey 11.436–439).

Her Comparison With Penelope Is Central

The Odyssey repeatedly places Clytemnestra and Penelope on opposite sides. Clytemnestra joins with another man and helps destroy her returning husband, while in the poem Penelope keeps the suitors at bay until Odysseus returns.

Her Death Does Not End the Curse

Orestes kills Clytemnestra to avenge Agamemnon, but he is then pursued by the Erinyes for killing his mother (Aeschylus, Libation Bearers 1048–1062).

Unraveling Clytemnestra: Queen, Mother, and Avenger

The ancient sources do not agree on how much of the killing was hers. In the Odyssey Aegisthus is the chief plotter and Clytemnestra kills Cassandra; in Aeschylus she plans and strikes the blows herself and answers for them before the elders; Sophocles, Euripides and Apollodorus have the two kill together (Sophocles, Electra 97–99; Euripides, Electra 8–10; Apollodorus, Epitome 6.23).

The chain of killings runs through the house: Agamemnon sacrificed Iphigenia in the versions where she died, Clytemnestra killed Agamemnon, Orestes killed Clytemnestra, and the Erinyes pursued Orestes until the court at Athens acquitted him (Aeschylus, Agamemnon, Libation Bearers, Eumenides). Her story, as it is told from Homer to the tragedians, therefore ties the beginning of the Trojan expedition at Aulis to the homecoming of its commander.

Clytemnestra Sources

Clytemnestra appears in Homer’s “Odyssey,” especially in the stories of Agamemnon’s return and murder (1.29–43, 1.298–300, 3.193–312, 4.512–547, 11.385–466, 24.19–34, 24.192–202), and in the Iliad (1.113–115, 9.142–148). The poem also presents Orestes’ revenge against Aegisthus as an example for Telemachus.

The fullest ancient account of Clytemnestra’s murder of Agamemnon is Aeschylus’ “Agamemnon.” Her death at the hands of Orestes is told in Aeschylus’ Libation Bearers and in Sophocles’ “Electra,” and the trial of Orestes in Aeschylus’ Eumenides.

Clytemnestra’s attempt to save Iphigenia before the Trojan War is central to Euripides’ “Iphigenia at Aulis,” and Euripides’ Iphigenia among the Taurians (20–24) gives another account of Artemis’ demand. Euripides’ “Electra” gives another version of her conflict with Electra and Orestes. Her family and the House of Atreus are told in Apollodorus’ Library (3.10.6–9) and Epitome (2.10–16, 3.21–22, 6.23–28), in Pausanias (2.18.2) and in Pindar (Nemean 10.79–82); Hyginus (Fabulae 87–88, 117) adds the birth of Aegisthus and the death of Cassandra.

See Also: Agamemnon, Iphigenia, Orestes, Electra, Aegisthus, Cassandra, Helen, Menelaus